Force Transfer in Tendons and Ligaments

Force Transfer in Tendons and Ligaments


The mechanical behavior of tendons and ligaments has both a time-independent (or equilibrium) response and a time-dependent (or viscoelastic) response. The equilibrium elastic response is experimentally measured using slow strain rates or stress relaxation and creep testing, whereby step displacements or loading are applied and equilibrium values are obtained . The elastic response arises primarily from stretching and interactions of the solid phase components. However, the level of hydration also modulates equilibrium elastic response.

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Force Transfer in Tendons and Ligaments

Force Transfer in Tendons and Ligaments


 The viscoelastic response is experimentally measured by performing mechanical testing at varied strain rates, stress relaxation testing, creep testing, and harmonic testing . The viscoelastic response is attributed to both fluid flow-dependent and fluid flow-independent effects. Flow-independent effects refer to an intrinsic viscoelasticity of the solid phase (e.g., a viscous sliding of fibrils), while flow-dependent effects refer to the pressure driven transport of free water through a permeable tissue (e.g., described using biphasic theory).

Force Transfer in Tendons and Ligaments


 Force transfer at the macroscale (e.g., between the two insertion points of a ligament) is mediated by a number of complex and poorly understood mechanisms that span numerous physical scales. Initial force transfer occurs within individual fascicles. Although it was once thought that fascicles spanned the entire ligament or tendon unit, recent evidence suggests that fascicles may be discontinuous and connected via lateral force transfer through an interfascicular membrane. Force within individual fascicles is transferred via crimped fibers. Confocal studies on fascicles subject to tensile loading reveal highly complex microscale interactions, where shearing and sliding deformations result from the uncrimping of these fibers. Force within fibers is transmitted via collagen fibrils, and force within collagen fibrils is transmitted via assembled tropocollagen monomers.The material properties of each scale level have been found to be markedly different with specialized methods of testing being required for each scale level.

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